Theatre

Uncle Vanya is a Russian tragic comedy that was written by the celebrated playwright Anton Chekhov, published in early 1899. Its maiden performance was carried out in 1900 and was directed by Konstantin Stanislavski. Although Chekhovs works are not political in total, in Uncle Vanya, the playwright is instrumentally concerned with the social castes distinctions. Hence, artistically, he has managed to incorporate elements of realism and more so pays attention to how the communities live. This is evidenced by the fact that, some of the most memorable dialogues in this play are almost similar to real conversations, where folks talk at cross intentions or misconstrue one another. Konstantin Stanislavskys approach to dramatic text and theatrical production focuses on the growth and development of artistic reality on stage. This he achieved by training the actors to be the part of the play during the performance.

This system he helped to develop, he primarily designed it to be applied in diverse forms of drama, theatre, opera and production. Thus, in order to build a company of actors, he began developing his own studio where he taught and trained them in his unique system. His methods included concentration, tone, physical skills, sensation memory, surveillance, harmony, scrutiny, imagination and personalization. He afterward worked on The Method of Physical Actions. This was created at the Opera Dramatic Studio near the beginning of early 30s, and this approach worked like Emotion Memory (Napierkowski 254). The focal point was on the bodily actions rousing truthful sentiment, and involved creativeness and discussion. The focus stayed on getting the subconscious via the conscious. Reflecting on the performance of Uncle Vanya, it is paramount to realize that, Chekhov had vehemently attempted to avoid dramatic action.

However, Stanislavskys approach to this performance is incredible this is due to the fact that, as a director, he managed to introduce passion and liveliness in the production, note that, Uncle Vanya presents numerous challenges to the actors. Consider that, this play has the issue of comedy and the blind casting that Chekhov had injected into the play. But despite such a situation, Stanislavsky injected the notion of Method acting, basing this idea on the concept of achieving the emotional echelon and identification, he believed that the actors were feeling and behaving in a manner the characters are exposing individual feelings as per the performance involved.

Examining the English version of Uncle Vanya, there tend to exist a dramatic difference with the original Russian version, perhaps this can be attributed to the aspects of translations where some elements are somehow altered, but it is crucial to state that, the Russian version is more engaging, novel and captivating compared to the later. Looking at the content of the performance, it is impossible to get the mix right, this is allied to the fact that, most of Chekhovs works are defined as comedies but they up being tragedies.  Hence, this is one challenge that most actors and directors face in the line of handling Uncle Vanya. Therefore, going back to Stanislavsky, he emphasized on the importance of actor using individual imagination in any given circumstance.

Uncle Vanya is thematically edged with what may sentimentally be defined as a wasted life, and an analysis of the actors and their individual miseries makes this apparent. Admittedly, though, it remains fairly difficult to systematize these notions into a rational theme as they fit in to the plays nastroenie, its forlorn mood or ambiance, than to a distinctive program of thoughts. The diverse artistic tools employed do present a solid flow of thoughts and movement, hence this helps in creating a distinctive space in this piece of work. Unlike any other common performance, Uncle Vanya exudes a formidable crisis which is hard for any individual to interpret. It should be accepted that, Chekhov employed or rather utilized the concept of suspense in total.  Hence, in performance the actors are required to expose the same while showing an ambience of energy and vigor. Therefore, the unique features that are apparent in the Russian performance include well coordinated moves, captivating dialogue as well as the confidence exposed by the performers. This greatly influences the eventual outcome of the play. However, comparing and contrasting both English and Russian performances, it is instrumental to realize that, even the cast and the audience plays a significant role in the way they whole performance is delivered.

Nevertheless, Stanislavsky embraced a very moderate structure in influencing the performance and production of Uncle Vanya.  This is evidenced by the fact that, he employed less draining procedures of having in ways in ones emotions, and more so emphasizing the use of individual subtle and novel imagination and this helped the actors to reflect on the performance texts without having to visualize on the individual private past which perhaps were mired with painful memories. Although a noticeable absence of drama is definitely a type of indirection, Chekhovs proclivity for inserting absurdity into the most ominous pronouncements or circumstances is a radical, anti-dramatic approach. In Uncle Vanya, excruciatingly sad instances are destabilized by incongruous particulars or moments of absolute silliness. In several ways, Chekhov behaves like a magician, by means of the misdirection of comedy to deflect the viewers from the wretchedness that overwhelms Yelena, Vanya, Sonya and Astrov.

 It is widely known that, any given performance, whether thematically anchored within the precipice of sorrow, pain or joy, romance plays an integral party in the manner by which the producers presents their ideas of the play or how they interpret and ensemble the performing cast. Therefore, in regard to Uncle Vanya, it is instrumental to reach to a conclusion that the production team was at cross roads. This is due to the fact that, the way Chekhov had prepared Uncle Vanya was neither more of a comedy nor a tragedy, and this created a mixed reaction.  Despite such a challenge, the producers of English and Russian version shared one thing in common they utilized the concept of space to create real situations by using such prevalent techniques which embraced the system tools such as Given Circumstances, Objectives, and Units as well as the incorporation of Through Line and Emotional Memory which were developed by Konstantin Stanislavsky.

Throughout the performance the actors are supposed to reflect the real world in the movement, voice as well as in their dialogue. It is a fete that the producers employed diverse artistic tools to deliver uncompromised performance in 1900. Stanislavsky, being the producer, understood the challenges of directing and producing the work of such enormous nature as Uncle Vanya. By applying his knowledge of the system he himself developed, it is certain that, the concepts of artistic genuineness onstage are apparent. As an established thespian, he understood the mechanics of production.   Going by what the play revolved around he managed to diffuse hysteria the horror which is often caused by numerous trials in ones past, that engaged some sort of relentless conflict the fear can be anchored on a body part or most frequently on an anticipated predicament. Hence, Stanislavski anticipated that actors should understand and experience personal sentiments and feelings and patent them to viewers by bodily and vocal means - Theatre lingo.

While his System concentrated on creating truthful emotions and then personifying them, he clandestinely managed to present a formidable performance. Delving into the comparison of diverse performances, am convinced that, most performances are not congruent with the play and more so are not equally sensitive to the playwrights conception (Simmons 486). This can be linked to the fact that, more than often meaning is in some cases lost in the manner the play is directed, or where the playwright had independently created a situation where the theme rotates within a plot within a plot. Most producers tend to discard such elements by citing inconsistence. Considering the original concept of Uncle Vanya, the modern performances tends to undercut Chekhovs concept, which reflected his ideas of human suffering, frustrations and sad emotions. Time and again Chekhov presented his characters without drama or humor, hence, most directors perceive Uncle Vanya as an anti-play in some instance.

But to reinforce the whole idea of altering the flow of the idea enshrined in the play it is pivotal to consider theme, plot, suspence, repetation, imagery as well as metaphors where the playwright might have engaged the audience with unfamiliar dialogue, Perhaps, in an attempt to create suspense.  Chekhov further accentuates that old prototypes have been re-established by having Vanya say to Serebryakov at their parting, You will receive what you used to receive accurately. Everything will be as always (Hagen 89). In this case may I point that, the Uncle Vanyas production, in both cases, English and Russian, the productions were somehow congruent with Chekhovs original concept.

Inspector General is a satirical comedy that captures the hilarious indictment of political corruption in the Russian administration. It was published in 1836 and it tells a simple story of a young civil servant, Khlestakov, who apparently finds himself stranded in a small provincial town. Mistakenly, Khlestakov is taken by the local officials and made the government inspector. He happily adopts his role and exploits the situation where his true identity is revealed but then a real inspector arrives. Inspector General is the sort of nineteenth century slapstick which entertains and delights with its universally shallow character. Considering that these characters are nearly all government officials, they are the very people who supposedly should selflessly serve and protect the people but Gogol reveals them as self serving idiots whose concerns are only about protecting themselves. Gogol masterfully creates peoples, places and things with few words and allows them to disappear in the flow of the story.

The wide social spectrum of the play, the recognizable Russianness of its characters and its richly colloquial language, forms some of the performances of the play Inspector General. However, the genius of the play lies in much more than its national style for many troupes of many nationalities have performed it. Gogols true brilliance lies in the form of the play. Accordingly, Gogol blends aspects of neoclassicism with other various dramatic genres as well as the comic blend of logic and illogicality.  Pavis asserts that the play and its form is best understood in the light of its power and speed. Gogol has thus streamlined with neoclassical devices and as a result, his characters are familiar to us and his plot turns on the classical case of a mistaken identity. For example, Mayra is a nave ingnue while Khlestakov is entirely a comic braggart.

The Inspector General closely follows the unity of action which gives it simplicity and elegance regardless of its social spectrum and colloquial language. Jennesse argues that because of Gogols personal creativity, he stuck on the form provided that it was useful to him. For instance, the unities of place and time are observed only loosely. The twenty four hours of the play are long drawn out over the course of two days and the action takes place in varied locations but all in one provincial home. The utile and dulce of Horace are evident in the play but Gogol blends utile into the dulce relying on the on the plays a few unique stylistic devices such as inverted catharsis rather than pure didactism as well as the comic absurdity of the play. Such inverted catharsis creates joy for the audience and purges them with laughter. The audience must exit through a gapping wound created by the exciting action with these emotions teeding of within them.

Accordingly, Gogol adopted the qualities of utile and dulce to give power and speed to his streamlined play. Arguably, previous playwrights relied on the use of raisonneur to express the utile in their plays. Basically, while this tended to make their plays moral lesson abundantly clear, it slowed down the comic pace thus creating a dead air for both audience and actors. Jennesse further asserts that Gogols radical and ingenuous solution was the complete elimination of raisoneur. As such, Inspector General revolves nearly out of control with self-serving amoral characters in farcical situations that beg physical comedy. For example, Khlestakovs simultaneous and dual seduction of mayors wife and daughter, his solicitation of bribes from several officials is the farcical situation that Gogols characters run in.

It is plausible to argue that Gogol intended to assume the post production release of his emotions to ideally stamp out corruption and improve society. It goes without saying that the original production of Inspector General was a vaudeville which arguably was detracting from Gogols vision of a socially corrective play. However, if we regard only Gogols intent to encourage his audience to seek beauty, perfection or redemption, such an artistic failure turns out to be an achievement. Although Inspector General left much to be desired aesthetically, but its ideological impact was great since it instigated the theatrical realism that Russian would be famed of some day.

As Mayerhold wrote about the play Inspector General, is that although it contains all the elements of a play, its production was constructed according to various established dramatic premise. Although Gogol employs a host of familiar services in the play, it is suddenly realized that the treatment of them is a new. Thus the nature of Gogols comedy was initially produced as a comedy of the absurd situation.

In this production, three prototypes take their legitimate place at the head of the performance. The first one is composite of the historical images from the original premiere while the second one consists of reminiscences from Meyerholds brilliant production staged at Meyerhold theatre in 1926. The third prototype obviously involves a reflection from contemporary cities that reveal to us both its sarcastic grimaces and sublimity. In this production, Pavis also contends that the birth of absurdity from the spirit of regular life is the trick which lies in the perception that impunity and vice can rule the world. It is in this sense that Gogols the Inspector General can be plausibly regarded as a state play.

Inspector General seems to closely follow the theatrical production approach of Stanislavsky. As such, the play builds on a directorially unified aesthetic and embodies a naturalistic staging as well as the independent theatre movement. Jennesse postulates that Stanislavsky organized his dramatic texts and theatrical production using realistic techniques that were made into a coherent and usable system. With regard to Inspector General, Gogol borrowed widely from Stanislavsky such that the performance of this play is a theater- made treated with serious endeavor that requires discipline dedication and integrity. The acting for example seems to have been subjected to rigorous artistic self analysis and reflection. According to Pavis, following the approach of Stanislavsky, the production of Inspector General as a dramatic piece, resulted from a persistent struggle to come over any hindrances. As a result, the development of performance was influenced by the development of a theorized praxis in which practice is widely used as the medium of inquiry fro the entire creative development.

The system of Stanislavsky acquired extraordinary ability to cross cultural boundaries. The many precepts of this system encompass aspects of the affective memory as well as the methods of physical actions. In light of the Inspector General, Gogol focused on the development of artistic truth to achieve performance techniques. As a result, emphasized on the onstage artistic truth such that actors lived the part they were performing during performance. Gogols Inspector General as a vaudeville focused on affective memory in a bid to create an ensemble of all actors working together as an artistic unit. In this way, actors in Inspector General used their own memories in order to express their emotions in the most natural way.

However, the whole question of affective memory is does not effectively suffice and arguably, it does not becomes an  essential tool in the actors kit because it is more draining on the part of the actor since at times it requires that an actor uses his private and often painful memories..A less draining way of accessing emotions which will emphasis the actors use of imagination as well as belief in the given milieu of the text can be used instead.

Another important component of Stanislavsky is the method of physical action. Accordingly, actors are bound to analyze and experience subjective emotions as well as feeling and then manifest them to their audience .This of course uses both vocal and physical means in the context of theatre language. As a result, Gogol in Inspector General used this system to focus on creating truthful emotions and eventually embody them in performance. The method of physical action works like emotions memory in reverse and predominantly focuses on the physical actions inspiring truthful emotions. Gogol improvised his performance to aim at reaching the subconscious through the conscious.

To recap, Gogols performance of the Inspector General embodies the comic and dramatic techniques which make this play as the greatest comedy in the Russian language. From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that Gogols Inspector General begins with a blinding flash of lightening and ends in a thunder clap. this play can thus be described as a power type metaphor because it builds speed from the beginning and by the end of the play, the feverish speed  bursts of f the stage and crushes through the walls of the theatre thus leaving the audience to depart through the would. As such, Gogol draws these theatrical skills fro m the Stanislavskys approach to dramatic text and theatrical production.

In the medieval Centuries, theatrical performances in the world developed greatly. A major question that one may ask is what are the distinct features of the 15th-17th Centuries theatrical performances This paper uses examples from roman and Spanish cultures to illustrate the distinct features of theatrical performances during the medieval period. Spanish artists integrated Spanish with Italian styles thereby developing a characteristic style of performances during what is today refereed to as the Spanish golden age. Spain had some of the most creative playwrights the world has ever had. These include, Lope de Vega (1562-1635), who wrote as many plays as possible some of which exist up to date. Some of the plays that Lope de Vega wrote was among the most celebrated Fuente Ovejuna, Peribez, El perrodel hortelano, and El caballero de Olmedo. Spanish theatrical performance thrived with religion being its primary foundation. In the 16th century, religious festivals were being held three times per year in Spain. These festivals were known as the corpus Christie. They put more emphasis on church authority. During these festivals, religious plays known as autos sacramentales, written for Corpus Christie were performed. These plays incorporated moral aspects as well as cycle plays. They portrayed features that were both human and supernatural. Dramas of the time combined both religious and secular elements. They usually had a moral lesson they intended to portray. The content of the plays changed drastically as they became purely Spanish. Until the mid 1500s, trade guilds held the sole responsibility of producing autos.

Performances were either new or repetitions. They were initially performed by either a single company and later by two or more companies. Different acting companies consisted of 16-20 actors who included women.  They usually purchased plays from playwrights. These companies obtained their licenses from the government. It was only after the corpus Christie that troupes could tour other villages and present in public. Dramas were mostly held in carros or wagons which contained everything that was needed during a performance. Carros were set in such a way that they contained curtains, doors and an upper stage that represented heaven. They were moved from place to place depending on the venue of performance. By around 1550, professional theatrical performances began in Spain led by Lope de Rueda. His works were mainly religious. Playwrights of the time devised actions that kept the audience attentive.

Eventually, religious plays incorporated more secular themes.  Secular dramas began to emerge by 16th century. Talented Spanish playwrights incorporated their culture, heritage and personal attributes into theatrical performances thus developing the content of Spanish theater. The aspects of Spanish acts were simply a combination of history, religion and desires of Spanish. Various themes were borrowed provided they taught catholic beliefs at the end. Most of theatrical performances dealt with love and honor as their major themes. Humor and tragedy were also used as themes in performances. Performances during that time also had very many characters that played different roles.

Performances were conducted in Corrales that looked like the Elizabethan public theaters. Corrales were constructed on already exciting courtyards. They contained a square that was reserved for men and a second story for women who were not accompanied. The highest story was reserved for nobles and heads of state. Though these Corrales were initially temporary, they became permanent. 

Though the work of many artists in the 16th century was ineffective, it prepared the way for future comedia. Lope de Vega was a prominent figure during the golden age commedia.  He established the comedia as the national drama and wrote rules regarding performances. Plays occurred within a specified period of time. They incorporated supernatural elements and did not hold on to neoclassical fundamentals. They were mainly written in three acts with many scenes.

A monologue was usually presented prior to each play. Performances were mainly court dramas which involved intricate scenery and stage machinery. During performance, distinct costumes were worn by different characters. An actor could play a single role during the play or play multiple roles.

Typecasting was also popular. The Spanish theater suffered a very big blow when the Catholic Church disapproved it. All theatrical activities in Spain were adversely affected since religious aspects played the largest part in law production and culture. In 1587, a law was passed stating that women too could perform, but it was abolished in 1596. Actresses were only allowed on stage if they had the company of a male actor.

During the renaissance period, roman theatrical performances were conducted at the courts of princes. It became custom to have plentiful musical entertainment known as intermezzi in between the main acts. The first intermezzi were preserved for posterity and celebration of a wedding in Florence at the Medici court in 1589. The scenes of these intermezzi became common to opera audiences in the following centuries. As stated by Stanton, roman traditions greatly influenced the theatrical performances in Rome. Greek masks and costumes were worn by roman actors during play. Though Greek performers greatly incorporated religious aspects into their plays it had little influence on roman theatrical performances. Theatrical performances in ancient Rome were designed for aesthetic appeal.

Actors of the time had developed a code that from a mere look, one could identify them. A black wig was worn by a young man while a grey one was worn by an old man. A red wig was worn to represent a slave. A white robe was worn to signify an old man while a purple robe was worn to represent a young man. A yellow robe was worn to symbolize a woman and a yellow tussle represented a god.

Although there was no limitation for the number of plays that could be performed per day, the maximum single plays took a maximum of two hours. Plays were usually presented during daytime mostly in the afternoon. Actors usually wore Greek dresses. Performers were free to decide on whether to wear masks or not. Comedies were the types of plays preferred by the Romans. Audiences were moved by acts that did not involve speaking. The subject of actions remained primarily religious as guided by the Catholic Church and well-off families. Demand for secular arts however increased with increase in wealth for merchants and princes. The main themes that were used in theatrical performances of the time include greed, comic stories, drunkardness, acrobatics, and dances. Acting profession in Rome was mainly held by men. Women joined the profession much later. The setting of theatrical stages in Rome had very distinct features. A common stage contained a street with a stage and three to four chamber in the background. It also had two doors, one on the left and the other on the right. The number of characters involved in a single performance was not limited though they required at least five speaking actors. A division between one act and the other was only made when the actor left the stage in preparation for another act. The audience was entertained with flutes during intermissions.

Roman theatrical performances composed of various stock characters. Some of the common characters used during performances were triumphant fighters, slaves, braggarts, strict fathers and many others. The costumes worn by stock characters became realistic with time. Tunic and a cloak were the basic costumes for these characters. A mask, which was a characteristic costume worn by many characters, allowed them to play multiple roles.

Walker, has asserted that the desire for action and entertainment increased greatly among the roman audience. Roman audience had little respect if any for the artists and the event.  They became less appreciative of plays and were constantly booing artists. Theaters in Rome were not places of worship as it was in Greece. They were full of chaotic and violent episodes. Due to the disgusting violent acts taking place on roman stages, the Christian church started attacking theatrical performances. They were abolished due to their absurdity and violence.
   
Short scenes acted by two or three people also known as mimes, survived of all stage entertainments in Rome. In these mimes, an actor impersonated a decent but dull official and associated it with an indecorous situation. Pantomimic shows were also a part of the ancient roman actions. Simple mimicry was conducted in three ways, that is, those without words and songs conducted in conjunction with dancing, mimicry in combination with instrumental music, and mimicry with songs and words. 
   
According to Stanton, Roman theatrical performances during the renaissance period were mainly performed in Latin. Performances were also based on Roman models. Dramas of the time were purely for academic purposes. They lacked vitality and contained a lot of turgid literature. They were usually performed by academicians in court festivals. The major concept of theatrical performances during the renaissance period was the manifestation of truth. Though these plays did not produce an exact copy of the world, they did away with illogical and questionable factors and incorporated proper moral order and dignity in dramas. Humor and misfortunes were not used as themes in a single play. Choruses were also eliminated from plays.  Plays were conducted in such a manner that in the final end evil was punished and all good deeds were rewarded.

Time, place and action were the three most important aspects considered for any action during renaissance period. Plays were supposed to have only one plot. They were also supposed to take place in one location within a period of twenty four hours. The notion behind this was that, the audience would not pay much attention to a play that had been spanning around for several days on different locations. Early roman theaters were constructed in places such as courtyards that were rectangular in shape. Painting was done on a surface that was originally flat to develop an impression of depth. Though the law of unities demanded for single setting, there developed a practice of intermezzi between dramas. This practice required change of scene. An architectural frame around the stage was developed to further enhance illusion of the stage.

Theatre is a significant form of public art which reflects the society and on most occasions anticipates the future developments in the society. In particular the twentieth century theatre has undergone a complete metamorphosis when compared to the previous century, thereby affecting the society to a large extent. This research paper explores the influence of theatre over political, social and philosophical movements with particular emphasis on Naturalist Theatre, Cruel Theater and Epic Theatre. The paper traces the origins, progress of the playwrights and their influence on the society pertaining to these three different theatres.

Twentieth century theatre cannot be confined to theatre alone. The concept of theatre has undergone a paradigmatic shift during the last hundred years and has witnessed the emergence of a multitude of social, cultural and political changes. Playwrights of the previous century tried to accommodate those transformations on the stage and this gave way to the birth of different theatres, breaking the conventional rules of the stage. The prolific growth in the field of science and technology, spirit of nationalism, the transformation from rural agrarian based economy to the urban industrial economy, expansion of city life and above all the effect of two greatest wars has influenced the dramatists to a great extent in the choice of theme and mode of presentation.

The theatre revolution of the twentieth century started in the late nineteenth century through realism. In fact realism marked the birth of modern theatre and now it is into the second century. Dramatists brought controversial subjects on stage, confronting the audience with a challenge rather than to please them. The melodrama of the nineteenth century was lampooned. Dramatists like Shaw and Ibsen adapted their plays to suit the social and psychological issues of the period. On the other hand Strindberg and Chekhov dumped the dramatic rules and stock characters. In fact several plays were banned for public staging because of the controversial themes. Modern theatre marked its initiation with the emergence of Naturalism after which several aesthetic movements of the twentieth century such as Realism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Absurdism and Postmodernism emerged.
Realists tried to create an authentic depiction of society in their plays and they considered that their plays were moral as the highest form of morality is the depiction of truth. Realism gave way to Naturalism which had its origins in France during 1860s. It was nurtured out of the interest in Darwins theory of evolution. The theories related to creation of life, natural selection and dependence on the environment influenced the people to a large extent and this resulted in Naturalism as a mode of opposition to Romanticism which signified emotional interest and personal experience. Histrionic acting was completely rejected on Naturalist theatre and instead performance was solely based on the actors emotions and psychology. Further the usage of realistic stage props was encouraged. Naturalism emerged as the source of mainstream theatre performances and had a great influence on the political and social life of the people. Turney quotes the famous Jean Jullien who defined Naturalism A play is a slice of life put onstage with art in his essay. Naturalism basically is a socio-political movement which is rooted in Naturalist philosophy. The playwrights associated with Naturalism tried their best to portray the objective picture of the society and individuals in an authentic way, by bringing the life of the middle class live on stage for the first time in the history of theatre.

Theatre is a public art form and in particular Naturalist theatre was closely interwoven with the events and the social concerns of the contemporary age more than any other art forms. The emphasis is placed on Ibsen, Chekhov, Stanislavski and The Moscow Art Theatre who gave way to new social and economic reforms along with the advent of new philosophical ideas. Antoines Thtre Libre is the first successful naturalist theatre. To start with a short piece by Zola titles Jacques Damour was staged and in order to reflect the authenticity of Naturalism, the stage was modified and an experiment in stage lighting was carried out which included the dimming of auditorium and removal of foot lights. Antoine encouraged the performance of foreign playwrights with a bend towards Naturalism such as Ibsen and Strindberg to stage their plays. Independent theatres which allowed the performance of Naturalist plays include J. T. Greins Independent Theater in London, Andr Antoines Thtre Libre in Paris and Konstantin Stanislavskys Moscow Art Theater.

A strong sense of ambiguity in terms of extreme individualism and critique is observed in the plays of Ibsen and Strindberg. They employed several innovative techniques which heightened the fictiveness of the theatre rather than suppressing the theatrical effect.  Rebellato states that, In place of the psychological breakdowns of Strindberg and the political passions of Ibsen and Zola, Chekhov wrote with a detached calmness that put action into the background. Chekhov along with Stanislavsky experimented with yet another approach towards Naturalism in his plays at the Moscow Art Theatre.
Aestheticism developed on par with Naturalism. This movement basically focused on beauty of artworks over the political and social use of artworks. It primarily emphasizes on Art for Arts sake principle. Symbolism, which is another movement of the twentieth century dealt with mysticism and subjectivity. Symbolism and Naturalism gave way to Futurism which had its origins in Italy. This movement was led by F.T.Marinetti who depended on puppets and machines instead of human characters. The anarchy that existed in the society was reflected through this movement and futurists in Italy associated themselves with Fascism and advocated war as a solution. Also the Russian futurists considered themselves as socialists and participated in the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. Berghaus states that Futurist theatre was inextricably intertwined with political actions. In fact, both emerged to such an extent that it is impossible to separate the one from the other. It is not astonishing, therefore, to find the artistic events were shaped by their political function, and vice versa, that primarily political events were given an aesthetic appearance.

Poets, artists and actors who were disenchanted with the First World War fled to Switzerland and formed an intellectual revolt movement called Dadaism. They believed that logic and order has led to the World War and hence completely rejected logic in every possible form. Irrational and intuitive thoughts were appreciated by them. Dadaists were against war and believed in socialism in order to form a class-less society. Dadaism was a prelude to Surrealism which featured the surprise elements and juxtaposed controversial themes. Surrealists similar to Dadaists associated themselves with communist parties and Antonin Artaud is one the most influential surrealists who later created the Theatre of Cruelty, inspired by ancient rituals.

Advancements in the theories related to theatre function marked the birth of Theatre of Cruelty. Antonin Artaud believed that the primary function of the theatre to get the audience rid of the repressive effects of modernization and civilization and this is done by letting out their instinctual energy. Talking about Artaud, Innes states that He mirrors the disillusion of the 1960s1970s with conventional forms of society and religion, and pioneered the experiments with hallucinatory drugs. He achieved this on stage by introducing mythic spectacles that include screams, pulsating lights, groans and oversized puppets. Artaud himself states, I employ the word cruelty in the sense of an appetite for life, a cosmic rigor, an implacable necessity, in the gnostic sense of a living whirlwind that devours the darkness it is the consequence of an act. Everything that acts is a cruelty. It is upon this idea of extreme action, pushed beyond all limits, that theatre must be rebuilt.  He felt that world of theatre has become empty and hence employed innovative techniques to revolutionize the stage. He wished to connect to his audience is a more authentic and primal way, which he felt has been lost in most people. Artaud in his The Theatre and Its Double talks about the primitive myths, plague and the animated hieroglyphics of the Balinese and thereby portrays the cure for the decadence of the modern society lies in the ancient primitive forms of living which is more instinct based than intellectual based.
Theatre of Cruelty was developed by Artaud as a mode of rebellion against bourgeois conformism. He believed that subconscious confusion arises when an individual is confined to the norms of the society. As Dacko claims, Just as the Romantics fought for liberty, Artaud also demanded freedom from traditional societal thought in his Theatre of Cruelty. According to Artaud theatre is life and not a mirror that reflects life. Hence he felt that individuals are thwarted from looking at things in an innovative way due to their respect and reverence to the master pieces of the past. He was strongly convinced that people are suppressing their feelings and not completely participating in their life.

I want to give them the experience itself,
The plague itself,
So they will be terrified,
And awaken.
I want to awaken them.
Because they do not realize they are dead.
Their death is total, like deafness and blindness.
This is agony I portrayed.
Mine yes,
And everyone who is alive
(Lewis)

Theatre of Cruelty stressed on overcoming the conventions of the theatre which included costume, stage, lighting, auditorium and the like. Artaud attempted to rebuild altogether a new theatre and cruelty refers to a hunger after life and the persistent need of pain in life and he believed that anything that acts is cruelty.

One of the most significant playwrights of the Avant-garde movements, Piscator pioneered Epic Theatre and Bertolt Brecht perfected it, which emphasized on the interruption in the flow of the plot and acting, in order to provide an objective depiction of the society. This style and technique was popularized by Max Reinhardt and Erwin Piscator, apart from Brecht. Epic Theatre is influenced by the horrors of the First World War and Great Depression and the resulting pathetic human conditions. Bercht strongly believed that theatre is a powerful medium to bring about a radical social and political change in the society.

Epic Theatre attempted to influence and to teach the audience to inquire and criticize about the inequalities and denial of justice in modern life through two techniques namely theatricalism and alienating or distancing. Theatricalism refers to the audience being made aware of watching a play instead of becoming subjectively influenced by the play and distancing, similar to theatricalism refers to the actors to strike a balance between enacting the role of a particular character onstage and making the audience realize that the actor is acting out on the stage. Brecht talking about Epic Theatre stated that, Today when human character must be understood as the totality of all social conditions the epic form is the only one that can comprehend all the processes, which could serve the drama as materials for a fully representative picture of the world.

Epic Theatre laid emphasis on objectivity of the audience towards the stage. In order to obtain optimal objectivity and the audience to remain detached from the theatre, most of the characters were nameless. White make-up was used for the characters and a voluntary interaction between the singer and the orchestra could be witnessed on the Epic Theatre. Instead for using everyday language, which would promote the bonding between the audience and the stage both prose and poetry is used hand in hand so that the audience remain emotionally detached from the stage.

Whenever Brecht wished to comment on the society, he usually set the play in a different country and a different period of time. The Epic theatre had a practical purpose. It shows that man is responsible for the political and economical changes in the society and also reiterates that he is capable enough to alter them. Hence when a play is set in a different country and different period of time, the audience can freely criticize the human behavior in the play with a social point of view.

American writers like Eugene ONeill, Arthur Miller and Edward Albee explored the tragedy of everyday life in America in their plays which reflected the economic, social and political challenges confronted by an average citizen. Meta-theatre on the other hand insists on role-playing and portrays the relationship between the theatrical illusions and reality of life and Luigi Pirandellos Six Characters In Search of an Author is a meta-tragedy where the playwright brings out hide and seeks between the theatrical illusion and reality. After the Second World War, the theatres started expanding across various cities in Europe and most dramas were based on Brechts Epic Theatre and Artauds Theatre of Cruelty which used theatre as a medium of social analysis and influenced the Environmental Theatre movement during the 1960s. People were completely disillusioned watching the horrors of the Second World War and the threat of atom bomb and during the 1950s and 1960s several playwrights felt that Theatre of Cruelty was the right mode of representation of their bottled-up emotions. The abusive language used in John Osbornes Look Back in Anger and Edward Albees Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf Reflect the disillusioned state of mind of the audience and their anger against the society.

Theatre of Cruelty and Epic Theatre represented the non-conventional form of theatre in the twentieth century. Brecht only opposed certain sections of the conventional theatre but Artaud emphasized on the complete transformation of the existing roles of theatre which represents a radical opposition to the conventional theatre. Post-war era witnessed the evolution of theatre to a great extent even Realism and Surrealism took turns to influence the theatre of the latter part of the twentieth century. The social upheavals in the late twentieth century related to civil rights, feminism, gay liberation, Afro-American lifestyle and the AIDS crisis became the influencing factors of the theatre dealing with controversial themes. The witty surrealistic play of Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead and Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin in the Sun, depicting the Afro-American life are few examples to quote.  
Theatre, a mode of reflection of life has been undergoing a continuous transformation from the state of melodrama in the latter half of the nineteenth century to the postmodernist theatre of the twentieth century. As the theatrical concepts change, the social, political cultural perspectives are also undergoing a radical transformation. The influence of theatre over the society and the society over theatre reflect the strong bond between the two entities and one cannot exist without the other.

Throughout the century, various mediums of art have undergone complete metamorphosis and theatre is no exception. Further theatre being a public art form, it represents the slice of life onstage and hence it is more close to people than any other art form. This is because audience try to relate to the characters since it either reflects their life, relates to their past or anticipates their future. The revolution in the medium of theatre is not just confined to the twentieth century but it is well set to continue into the twenty first century as well.  

Thesis Comparison - Renaissance England William Shakespeare  the Lord Chamberlains Men and Renaissance France Moliere  La troupe de Monsieur
During the Renaissance period in England, dramatic plays and performances by William Shakespeare and his band of players (The Lord Chamberlains Men) were acted in full costume for the court of Queen Elizabeth 1. Shakespeares popularity amongst the court and the public was more appealing to a wider society than French playwright and actor Molieres troupe of performers at the courts of the Sun King Louis XIV.
2.     Renaissance - The Age of Idealism
The Renaissance period 1400-1700 and was also known as the Age of Idealism whereby artists, writers, musicians, and actors could revel in a new freedom to re-engage with culture in a confronting and spectacular manner.
This era was seen as a return to the classical culture of the Greeks and Romans in many ways especially in art and drama, considering the earliest form of theater began in ancient Greece between c. 550 and c. 220 B.C.
Athens, as the city-state was seen as a cultural icon where Greek plays based on these three genres were performed, satyr (satire), comedy and tragedy in open air theaters such as the Hellenic theater at Epidaurus.
These ancient plays of Greece and Rome impacted greatly on Western Europe and became classical statements of the early culture of a highly intellectual and creative people. It is interesting how creativity is not so different and how important the performing arts are for human entertainment or enlightenment in any era.
3.     Elizabethan theater
Medieval style
Court performances were not new to royalty as throughout the Medieval and Middle Ages, minstrels, troubadours, court jesters (jugglers) were engaged to create a jovial atmosphere at the sumptuous dinner parties or merely at the request of the current monarch.
Tudor Queen
With the accession to the throne of Queen Elizabeth 1 (1558-1603), and the creative rebirth of the Renaissance, the Elizabethan theater became a strong hold of the performing arts.
Queen Elizabeth 1 requested a playing troupe of actors be formed and known as Queen Elizabeths Men and would later be called the Lord Chamberlains Men.
This troupe included The Bard (William Shakespeare) well known English poet and playwright. The performers entertained at the royal court many times throughout the year with Shakespeare performing in seven plays in the winter of 1604.
In addition to pleasure and recreation, court entertainments thus provided a means to
interact with the Queen and to come to her attention.  (2)  (The Elizabethan Court)

Elizabethan stage scenery
Dr Susan Mary Steele compiled a collection of historic records for her book Plays and Masques at Court During the Reigns of Elizabeth, James and Charles in 1926. Included in these records were the Documents Relating to the Office of the Revels in the Time of Queen Elizabeth.
The majority of the records from the Elizabethan time was previously published by Professor Albert Feuillerat (1908) and shed cultural light on a dynasty of theatrical delights. Note the official name of these records from the Elizabethan era  the Office of the Revels  which literally can relate to celebration and having fun. How delightful that the Tudor Queen created such a charming office within her reign.
These records show, in the quaint spelling of the era, how much effort went into the creation of stage settings for the court plays and masques (musical entertainment). The Office of the Revels paid the performers and organised the stage scenery.
The complexity of the masques provided anthems, operas and classical music for the royal household and court. Elaborate plays required sometimes exotic scenery but this was usually stylised in wood or paynted (painted). 

A play at Hampton Court, December 25, 1574...Lodes of Tymber for the Rock ...In 1576, for The historie of the Collyer, a paynted cloth and two frames were taken to Hampton Court. Often the warrant for payment reads somewhat as follows For making theire Repaire to the Courte with their whole Companye and furniture to present a play before her Matie, without listing details of the furniture. The cariadge of the stuffe to or from the court is often recorded while the articles carried are not given in the Accounts.
Elizabethan music
 During the medieval era poetry was a form of court entertainment and this was accompanied by a fiddle or other form of music but in the Elizabethan theater era music and lyrics came together to create a backdrop for performances.
William Shakespeare, one of Queen Elizabeths favourite poet, playwright and performer created an incredible array of emotions in his plays which required the support of musical accompaniment to reflect the mood. This was accomplished by the Elizabethan theater musicians who were situated in a gallery or in the pit below the stage with their backs to the actors. Shakespeare also wrote in three genres, Comedies, Tragedies and Histories and it is amusing to think of his plays as being the earlier forms of musicals with Twelfth Night containing six songs.
The Swan Playhouse
Although Shakespeare and his troupe performed often at the court of Queen Elizabeth 1 they also performed at several playhouses in London. The Swan theater was built in 1595 near the river Thames across from the City of London and it resembled the open-air theaters of ancient Rome or Greece in the way the seats were in a circle around the central stage. 
MERGEFORMATINET      
The Swan theater (1595)    Chester mystery play (on pageant wagon)
It is pertinent to see the resemblance of the Elizabethan Swan theater to the medieval style pageant wagon which was part of the medieval play troupes performing stage. You can see how the performing arts have been influenced by previous generations even to the Roman style of open-air theater.
The Swan theater was reputed as the finest and largest of the London theaters at the time with seating for 3000 playgoers in the auditorium style seating.
4.    Renaissance France Cultural infusion
The Renaissance began around the late 1400s in France, as a product of King Charles VII invasion of Italy, where it had been flourishing since the 1400s. Famous Italian artists including Leonardo da Vinci immigrated to Paris to infuse their renaissance style of art into France.
As in the Elizabethan era, it is interesting to note that royalty played the part of becoming patron of the arts to encourage the French theater and actors. Caterina de Medici (1519-1589) from Florence married the French King Henry II (1519-1559) and her desire to bring the beauty of the renaissance to France contributed to the origins of ballet.
 Performing Arts
Unlike the English playgoers, the French were prone to engage in plays that held a political theme or stance. To say they were more intellectual than the English is not true but the English people wanted to be entertained the French wanted to be confronted, stimulated, and enriched.
During the reign of King Louis XIV, the French theater was founded in 1680 and a famous troupe of actors  the troupe of Moliere performed according to the charter granted by King Louis XIV. 
Jean Baptiste Poquelin, who was known as Moliere, was the most famous comic actor and dramatic writer of the 17th Century.  Although known for his satirical comedies, Moliere also wrote other works that included ballet scenes and incredible scenery changes. His drama group performed in the courtly salons of the Sun King Louis XIV amongst the incredible gold and crystal embellished luxury of the Palace of Versailles.
During one performance King Louis XIV appointed them as official entertainers for his court which was a prestigious and worthy accolade. Moliere would soon learn of the nuances of elite French society amongst the courtiers of King Louis XIV and he devised plays that dramatised the social norms and the consequences of rebellion against society. The performances could not be seen to contain too much realism as that would be too confronting to King Louis XIV and his upper class society.
One point that is appealing is how Moliere won the favour of King Louis XIV at his first appearance at his court. His troupes performance of Corneilles Nicomde won no applause from the courtiers and Moliere spoke to the elite audience saying how pleased he had been to perform for the greatest king in the world which naturally entranced the Sun King.

A small piece of comedy was performed by Moliere at that point who converted his audience to roaring laughter and gained the absolute approval by  King Louis XIV. Molieres description of his courtly audience allows us to imagine the delicate subtleties of appraisal and the propriety of behaviour in a court as impressive as that of the Sun King Louis XIV.
 The court of France--the most splendid in history--was present in all its strength. Here was Louis XIV, now twenty years of age, an ardent votary of pleasure, yet stately and reserved, with strength of character plainly written in his face...Anne of Austria, still regent of France, and ... Cardinal Mazarin, who for many years had guided the vessel of the State.  Molieres comments on the female courtiers really set the scene, to the rear was a host of the butterflies belonging to the court.
The performances by Moliere and La troupe de Monsieur at the Versailles court of King Louis XIV are indicative of the efforts the Sun King made to ingratiate visiting nobility and local aristocracy to impress Europe and the whole world with the splendour and brilliance of French culture.

Lope de Vega a Spanish playwright wrote one of the most significant play in his entire work known as the Fuenteovejuna. It was published for the very first time in 1619 in Madrid. The play is based on one of the occurrences that took place in a village known as Fuente Obejuna in  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCastile_28historical_region29 o Castile (historical region) Castile in the year 1476 (Vega 4). The villagers were mistreated by Fernn Gmez de Guzmn who was given the mandate to do so by Calatravas order. The villagers could not bear this mistreatment anymore and therefore they united and killed him. This made Ferdinand II of Aragon send a magistrate to the village so that he could investigate on the matter. The villagers were tortured so that they would say who had undertaken the act of murder but all they said was that Fuenteovejuna was responsible.
The background of this story goes back to the time when Spain was undergoing through a rapid change a hundred and fifty years after Fuenteovejuna original events that took place in the year 1476 to the time when Lope wrote the play in the year 1612. Spain had become a super-power due to its unity under the Habsburgs following the discovery of the New World. At the time when the play was written by Lope, Spain was still under the middle time of a Golden age. This golden age was marked by arts and literature in Spain that were flourishing. The era coincided with the decline of the Spanish Habsburg and the rise of politics. 
Princess Isabella of Castile married Aragons Prince Ferdinand II seven years before Fuenteovejuna events in 1469. The two major kingdoms of Aragon and Castile both of Spain were therefore merged through this marriage. Through this marriage, Christian Reconquista was brought to an end from the Muslim Moors of Spain. When Enrique IV, Isabels half-brother died, she rose to the throne in 1474. Alfonso V of Portugal on the other end went to Spain in order to secure Juanas throne the daughter of Enrique and Castiles princess. Two years later, Juana and Alfonso were defeated by Isabella and Ferdinands forces at the Battle of Toro. Ciudal was attacked in the same year by knights by the Order of Calatrava under the rule of 17-year old and Grand Mater Rodrigo Tellez Giroin who was a supporter of Alfonso and Juanas claims to the throne. The city was located near the border of Castile and therefore it was of strategic importance. Commander Guzman was killed during this invasion by the villagers since he was treating them poorly (Ganelin 12).
The synopses of the play opens with act one at Rodrigo Tellez Giron, Grand Master of the Order of Calatravas home. Fernn Gomez de Guzman a commander of the order urges the superiors to invade Ciudad Real town for the sake of Alfonso of Portugal and Juana. Giron makes up his mind to capture the city. The villagers and the village of Fuenteovejuna are introduced in this scene whereby it speaks of love. The commander goes tom the village and makes an attempt to take Laurencia and Pascuala by force to the castle. However, they resist the capture and overpower the commander and escape. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand are on a discussion about how they would invade Ciudada Real town making a vow to do so within the shortest time possible. Laurencia after the escapes meet with her lover Frondoso meet in the forest. At the time, the commander was traveling in the forest and comes across Laurencia and attempts to force himself into her while her lover was watching from a hiding. During this time as the commander struggles with the woman, he puts down his crossbow that was rather destructing him from carrying out his mission. Unluckily for him, the Crossbow is taken by Frondoso who points it to him as he gets away with his lover. This makes the commander so furious that he curses the couple as they disappear from his sight.
 The beginning of Act II it takes place with a discussion among the peasants in a village but is later interrupted by the commanders entrance. He demands Laurencias father, Esteban to allow him have her daughter. However, the father declines and this makes the commander very furious as he takes it like an abuse to him. During this time of dialogue between Esteban and the commander, a soldier enters the scene with the news for the commander that the Royal City had been invaded and was now being surrounded by Isabella and Ferdinands forces. This makes the commander drop down the talk and heads back to Ciudal Real town. Pascuala and Laurencia run away together with Mengo, another peasant. They meet Jacinta another peasant girl who was been persuaded by the commanders servants. Mengo however protects Jacinta from the commanders servants. Unluckily for them, they are captured by the same men and Mengo is whipped while Jacinta was broken her virginity by the commander who later hands her over to his men. Esteben allows Frondoso to marry his daughter Laurencia but as the wedding proceeds, its interrupted by the commander. He arrests him because he had threatened the commander with the crossbow when they were in the forest. Laurencia and her father are also arrested together with Frondoso for their resistance.
The third act of the play takes place in the village where men are gathered to decide the way forward due to the harassment they were going through form the commander and his men. At that time, Laurencia enters having been beaten and being forced to have sex though he declined and beat the attackers. He is very furious that the men did not gather before to help her from the arms of the commander. This persuades her to gather the women so that they would plot about how they would murder the commander. Just before Frondoso is hanged, the villagers enter the scene where the act was to take place and kills the commander and one of his servants.
After the murder is successfully undertaken, the villagers return to their village where they celebrate their victory while holding up high the head of the commander. Isabella and Ferdinand hear about this incident from, one of the servant who had survived and sends a magistrate to the village to investigate the murder case. The villagers however had already planned that they would not betray anyone who had participated. Despite the severe torture that was inflicted on them, they only said that Fuenteovejuna was responsible for the murder. This left the magistrate only confused and frustrated as he does not get the answer he needed. Isabella and Ferdinand are therefore forced to pardon the Grand Master regarding the murder case. The villagers also narrate their story to Isabella and Ferdinand. They are also pardoned as the play comes to an end.
From the summary of this story, one will realize tat there are several pertinent aspects of the Spanish Golden Age. One of them being the time this play was written. Te Spanish Golden Age began in 1492 and ended politically no later than 1659. Therefore, sine this story was written in 1619, its therefore evident that it lies between these times. Consequently, due to this period, the writer integrated some of the major aspects of the Spanish Golden Age.
Another evident aspect of the Spanish Golden Age in this play is the set of government that was used in it. In the Spanish Golden Age, the government was composed of a King and a chief minister. Just like the case of the play, there was a king, Ferdinand and his chief minister who in the play is depicted as the Commander. This therefore means that the play and the Spanish Golden Age share the same theme in their structure of the government. The writer has therefore used the Spanish Golden Age as his reference when bringing out the theme of the government. In this period of the Spanish Golden Age, there was oppression of the citizens by the elite in the government and both women and children were mistreated. This is the same case as in the play whereby the magistrate tortured women and young boys so that they could reveal the person behind the murder of the commander.                             The common people had no say about what the government was undertaking. However, with time, they joined hands so that they could oppose the deeds of the government. This is also evident in the play whereby as the play ends, the villagers united so that they would kill the commander. The setting of the scene in the play is similar to that of the Spanish Golden Age. The only difference is that the writer of the play chose to depict the period by using only a small setting which was the village and the kings royal palace (Edwards 6).
Another significant similarity between the play and the Spanish Golden Age was the location of the kings palace. In the Spanish Golden Age, the palace was located on top of a hill. This meant that it was isolated away from the citizens residences and security was maintained as it was easier to see the enemies approaching from the bottom of the hill. This is also similar in the case of the play whereby the kings palace was located away from the commons homes. The kings in both contexts had to move for quite a distance before reaching the premises of the citizens.
In conclusion, the writer Lope de Vega had the adequate knowledge about the Spanish Golden Age. He was therefore in a better position to base his play in this period quite well. He has however used different characters and settings but the theme of governance is similar in both contexts.